Introduction

1. Introduction

All professionals involved in the treatment of individuals with psychological disorders as well as childhood trauma would be able to gather further insight as to the importance of treatment and early intervention of these victims. Childhood trauma and its long-term effects on victims are constantly overlooked and lack research. It is also unclear if individuals being treated for psychological disorders are also being seen for coping with the trauma experienced. Understanding the effects of childhood trauma in adolescence and adulthood allows for early intervention and treatment programs to be developed in order to decrease the number of individuals developing psychological disorders and the number of children experiencing traumatic events. This information can be gathered to answer the following research question: What psychological disorders are associated with adolescents and adults who have experienced childhood trauma and what cognitive limitations are they more likely to experience?

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Conclusion

4. Conclusion

Based on the gathered research regarding psychological disorders and cognitive function in individuals with childhood trauma exposure, it can be concluded that a large portion of this population will develop a psychological disorder by the time they enter adulthood. It can also be concluded that cognitive function is often altered by traumatic exposure in childhood which carries into adolescence and adulthood. Psychological disorders are more prevalent in individuals who have experienced childhood trauma and often they experience more severe symptoms of the disorder. This could be a result of the combination of decreased self-esteem, altered cognitive function, and the environment as all aspects build from one another and have the opportunity to prevent progress. Recognizing the small and developing connection between types of psychological disorders and types of childhood trauma is important for understanding cognitive development as well as treatment for individuals exposed to childhood trauma.

While there is research demonstrating the increased rates of psychological disorders within this population, more research is required in order to study treatment methods and to discover whether individuals being treated for psychological disorders are also being treated for the childhood trauma. Research regarding an association between specific psychological disorders and specific types of childhood trauma is also necessary to obtain a deeper understanding of the impact of childhood trauma in adolescence and adulthood and would provide great insight on how to appropriately treat these patients. Further research is also required in order to further understand the extent to which memory is impacted as well as to uncover and other possible cognitive functions impaired by childhood trauma.

Ch. 7 Annotations

Berridge, Virginia. Public Health: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 
             Oxford, 2016.

The final chapter provides an overview of the changes in public health from the 19^th century to present along with concerns for the future of public health and public health interventions. For Berridge, the purpose of this chapter is to promote reflection, to encourage learning and growing from previous experiences in order to properly handle current public health issues. Berridge does this by addressing various concerns and approaches and referring to examples of previous experiences, both successful and unsuccessful. By providing supporting examples, Berridge is able to present a concrete perspective and opinion on the current status of public health. It is important to note the usage of subheadings as doing so allows the reader to easily identify the different areas being influenced by public health efforts as well as to identify the various types of concerns and tactics being addressed.

            One thing I found interesting was being able to see a quick time lapse of the changes public health underwent throughout the centuries and comparing it to where public health currently stands. This is interesting because in looking through changes quickly after having read into detail allows for a better appreciation of public health efforts as well as a clearer understanding of the fluid definition of public health. Another interesting point from this chapter is that Berridge provided hints towards the possibility of public health entering a cycle with the reemergence of certain diseases because certain tactics have been stopped. This makes Berridge’s point about reflection that much more important because public health could be addressing the same issues that had already once been resolved. Overall, the clarity of organization and the use of concrete information makes it possible for Berridge to assert and opinion regarding current public health efforts and how to approach them successfully. 

Ch. 6 Annotations

Berridge, Virginia. Public Health: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

2016.

Berridge discusses the changes occurring from the 19^th century through the 20^th century regarding politics, establishments, and changing social concerns and needs on the global level. Chapter 6 differs from the rest by focusing on public health issues on a global level rather than looking at national and local efforts to address public health concerns. Throughout the chapter Berridge discusses the importance of recognizing how much more was able to get accomplished when programs and interventions were initiated internationally and by organizations such as the League of Nations. It is mentioned how effective strategies implemented by individual countries were adopted and implemented internationally within developing countries. Developing countries faced the biggest issues when looked at on a global level because their idea of public health was different than that of developed countries, this was another key point made by Berridge.

            The overall purpose of this chapter was to shine light on the changes public health underwent on an international level to understand that changes to do not only occur with smaller organizations and services. It is because of colonization that research began on certain diseases and strategies were initiated to prevent pandemics. International public health also faced criticism during the 19^th century for being motivated by protecting European settlers and military troops in foreign lands rather than improving the health of indigenous individuals. This was interesting but not very surprising as it was normal for the time period to be concerned with oneself along with racial superiority. It was interesting to discover how much supervision there has been over marketing, implementation, and other aspects influencing public health efforts by the League of Nations as well as how much effort was actually put in to help the developing countries. 

Ch. 5 Annotations

Discussion Section

Discussion Section

3. Discussion

Based on the gathered research covering various aspects of life influenced by childhood trauma exposure, it is clear individuals who have experienced childhood trauma are cognitively impacted for the duration of their life. It does not go to say these individuals cannot learn how to manage any cognitive limitations or psychological disorders, but the research does clearly demonstrate the strong association with childhood trauma exposure. The gathered research can be grouped into four major themes: cognitive function, self-reflection, prevalence and severity of psychological disorders, and recurrence of victimization.

The research regarding cognitive function demonstrates an important cognitive function is altered or impacted by childhood trauma exposure and that is memory. The way in which the brain chooses to store experiences, emotions, and information is different for many of the individuals in adolescence and adulthood who experience childhood trauma by either making it difficult to retrieve the memories or by completely altering the memory itself. This may be a coping mechanism or a way to prevent the individual from re-experiencing the trauma. There is also research providing information on how self-reflection and esteem is impacted by childhood trauma exposure. The research presents the idea that many of those who experienced childhood trauma have lower self-esteems and a poorer model-of-self, meaning the trauma experienced influenced them enough to begin believing in the verbal and physical abuse endured as having occurred for a reason. Through this research, it can be suggested that these individuals are less likely to take care of themselves mentally, emotionally, physically, and in many other forms, which could contribute to the increased risk of developing a psychological disorder in adolescence and adulthood.

What is of particular interest is the research is beginning to make connections between types of psychological disorders and types of childhood trauma. Multiple articles have presented a high rate of individuals being treated for bipolar disorder are known to have experienced childhood trauma. Often times these individuals had more severe cases of bipolar disorder and it took longer for these individuals to demonstrate progress. While there are some mixed research findings regarding prevalence rates of psychological disorders among individuals with childhood trauma exposure, the research does demonstrate the severity of symptoms is higher for this demographic. Research gathered regarding recurrence of childhood trauma demonstrate a strong indication that individuals who experienced childhood trauma are not only more likely to experience another form of trauma in adulthood but are also more likely to have children who will experience childhood trauma. Typical characteristics within a family are difficult to break from, especially when all four themes presented in the results section are interrelated. All four themes influence and feed from one another, making it difficult for the impacted individuals to re-establish themselves and truly recover from the traumatic experience.

Childhood trauma exposure influences various aspects of an individual’s life over the course of several life stages, but has not been thoroughly researched. Cognitive function decreases in individuals with childhood trauma exposure and are more likely to return to a non-existent world throughout adulthood. Psychological disorders are a strong possibility due to the changes and variations in cognitive development and function. On top of being at a higher risk for developing psychological disorders, there is also a likelihood of experiencing more severe symptoms if a psychological disorder develops. Childhood trauma exposure does not end with childhood, it continues to influence the relationships established in adulthood with friends and family. Without getting the appropriate assistance, there is a high chance that impacted individuals will have children that will experience similar trauma in their young age. The impacts of childhood trauma are beginning to become clearer but more research is required if properly understand how these individuals are impacted as well as how to assist them is to be discovered.

Ch 4 Annotations

Berridge, Virginia. Public Health: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

2016.

In the chapter Sanitation to Education: 1800-1900s, Berridge discusses various social and economic changes that occurred during the 19^th century and how this information altered what was considered to be public health efforts. Focusing on the changes in Britain during this time is important because Berridge wants to ensure readers obtain a clear understanding of the beginning of modern public health. Berridge believes public health is one of the key aspects of countries modernizing because individuals were beginning to consider the impacts of urbanization on communities of all statuses. Explaining the transition from the wealthy individual to the poor and their surroundings is what allowed for the discovery of various diseases along with their sources and cures.

            It is important to note Britain experienced demographic, health and epidemiologic transitions as the health of individuals increased due to improved living conditions and resources. During the 1800s there were multiple instances when the government and local organizations experienced resistance from the wealthy and these individuals needed to be educated on the benefits of interventions. What seemed to scare the communities the most was the rapid change from not understanding why certain diseases were prevalent to being able to identify the source as well as cures for these diseases, making it difficult to be widely accepted. Educating the public is still a public health tactic to get communities to cooperate and even then there may continue to be resistance. The British government finally took some of the responsibility off of local organizations when cholera took over Europe which is great, but their intervention was simply motivated by keeping those who can turn a profit alive.

            Nearing the end of the 19^th century there were multiple improvements that have laid the basis for what public health currently consists of. Research and specifically the study of organisms grew tremendously, providing credible information for intervention programs as well as educating the public. Genetics, environments, method of transition and many other aspects of disease were being researched and people were living longer and better. Understanding the vast improvement of living conditions and concern for individuals establishes a groundwork for current public health strategies.

Ch 3 Annotations

Berridge, Virginia. Public Health: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

2016.

Berridge places an importance on understanding how public health was developed as a result of the beginning of modernization, and the concern for military and economic needs. The purpose of this chapter is to understand that concern for the health of communities began with some of the earliest civilizations while the needs and concerns of the communities is what has changed over the years. The work of Hippocrates is what initiated widespread recognition for what public health consists of. Focusing on the individual eventually led to also observing the environment and attempting to make changes to both, acknowledging a correlation between environment and illness. It is important to note how countries modeled their public health tactics after other countries, as well as the increase in disease due to the agricultural shift and traveling that grew into the 18^th century.

            Understanding the economic, social, and political history of the 18^th century is what allows readers to better understand the evolution of public health and the various motives for interventions. This also helps understand what it is so difficult to define public health as well as to better grasp how and why public health has so many branches. By providing background information on what provoked the government to begin getting involved with health concerns, Berridge is displaying the hardships of public health development. This is a hurdle that public health officials continue to experience as there are often times when local organizations are left to tackle issues alone or with little support. It is not until the economy or military is threatened that the government decides to take action, as seen when the bubonic plague took over European countries. The devastating results of the bubonic plague provoked other countries to begin intervention programs for things such as STDs.

            With this beginning concern for the health of individuals came the increasing desire for research to gather statistics on disease rates. Being able to identify the disease also became important as well as attempting to find a cure. Berridge directs the readers to focus on the motives of government involvement as well as the history of the time certain diseases were spreading in order to better understand the various changes to the definition of public health.

Methods Section

Methods Section

Title

1.1 Methods

Research for this article was conducted through the University of Nevada, Reno Knowledge Center database. Key words for the search included childhood trauma, psychological disorders, mental disorders, adolescence, and social behavior. A total of 10 articles were gathered and all articles used were found no later than March 3, 2017 using the following criteria:

• Observational studies on brain activity, social behavior, and factors contributing to psychological disorders
• Peer-reviewed journal articles published within the last 10 years
• Comparisons with individuals who didn’t experience childhood trauma with variations in age of participants

The first section consists of impaired cognitive function due to childhood trauma exposure. Understanding prevalence of psychological disorders and re-victimization requires understanding how the brain is influenced by the trauma, which is why cognitive function is discussed first. The second section focuses more on self-reflection and understanding how individuals with childhood trauma exposure view themselves and how this influences their mental health in adolescence and adulthood. The third section delves into the psychological disorders associated with childhood trauma along with the increased severity of symptoms. The final section is regarding recurrence of childhood trauma among individuals and generations. In order to understand why psychological disorders are common among individuals with childhood trauma exposure and the lifelong impacts, readers will need to understand cognitive function as it connects to every section.

Ch.2 Annotations

Ch.1 Annotations